Dermatoglyphics History

What can be stated with certainty is that as early as 500 BC Babylonian business transactions are recorded in clay tablets that include fingerprints, and at approximately the same time, Chinese documents are found having clay seals imprinted with the fingerprint of the author.

A Chinese deed of sale, 1839, signed with a finger print.
(From Laufer, courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural History)

chinese_fingerprint.gif (13496 bytes)

Perhaps the most bizarre use of fingerprints in recorded history dates to sixteenth century China where the sale of children is concluded by placing their hand and foot prints on the bill of sale.

The first "official" mention of fingerprints is in 1684: Dr. Nehemiah Grew lectures to the Royal College of Physicians of London about the interesting markings found on human fingertips.

The next two centuries finds scientists busy exploring the globe, cataloguing animal and plant species, and learning about the basic form and function of the human body. During this period, the study of fingerprints and line formations inches forward. Some notable landmarks:

Date	Person	Historical Event
1685	Gouard Bidloo	First book with detailed drawings of fingerprints
1686	Marcello Malpighi	Professor of Anatomy at the University of Barcelona. First to chronicle observations of fingerprints under microscope
1788	J.C.A. Mayer	First to write out basic tenets of fingerprint analysis. "Although the arrangement of skin ridges is never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless, the similarities are closer among some individuals. In others, the differences are marked, yet in spite of their peculiarities of arrangement, all have a certain likeness."⁽⁴⁾
1823	John E. Purkinje	Professor of Anatomy at the University of Breslau. First classification system, nine print categories.⁽⁵⁾
1833	Sir Charles Bell	Anatomist: studied structure and function of hands. The Hand: Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design.⁽⁶⁾
1858	Sir Wm. Herschel	British Chief Administration Officer Hooghly District, Bengal India.⁽⁷⁾
1880	Dr. Henry Faulds	Tsukji Hospital, Tokyo; article in Nature.⁽⁸⁾ Suggests picking up fingerprints at crime scene.
1883	Mark Twain	Life on the Mississippi: Dramatic fingerprint identification secures conviction
	The Will West Case	At around the turn of the century, Will West was brought to Leavenworth, Kansas for incarceration. When questioned about his prior record, West denied ever have been incarcerated before. The Bertillon Measurement System was employed (detailed facial measurements used to establish identification) and a match was found in the prison records. The matching file included the Bertillon measurements and a photograph that looked just like the new prisoner. The name on the file was William West. The only problem was that William West was already in prison, serving a life sentence for murder! Fingerprints were taken of William West and compared to the new prisoner, Will West and proved beyond a doubt that these were two distinct individuals. In one fell swoop. fingerprint analysis leapfrogged three alternate identification systems: name, photo, and the Bertillon System.
1892	Sir Francis Galton	Anthropologist, cousin of Charles Darwin, Finger Prints is his landmark publication. If Cummins is the father of dermatoglyphics, Galton is the "inventor".⁽⁹⁾ First practical method of fingerprint identification, responsible for basic nomenclature (arch, loop, whorl). Scientifically demonstrated permanence of fingerprints, first twins research.
1897	Harris Hawthorne Wilder	First American to study dermatoglyphics. Named the A, B, C, D triradii points, invented the Main Line Index, studied thenar hypothenar eminencies, zones II, III, IV⁽¹⁰⁾.
1904	Inez Whipple	First serious study of non-human prints.⁽¹¹⁾
1923	Kristine Bonnevie	First extensive genetic studies.⁽¹²⁾

Harold Cummins, M.D.
Doctor Cummins is universally acknowledged as the Father of Dermatoglyphics. Harold studied all aspects of fingerprint analysis, from anthropology to genetics, from embryology to the study of malformed hands with from two to seven fingers.⁽¹³⁾ He pulled together the diverse work of his predecessors, added original research and set the standards of the field still in force to the present. His famous Down Syndrome⁽¹⁴⁾ studies predicted a genetic link to the disease based upon the presence of the Simian Crease.

His willingness to stake his reputation on research that only became scientific "fact" two decades later cemented his place in history and brought national attention to dermatoglyphics.

Most medical studies utilize the following methodology: two populations are compared using some combination of the following list of common variables (see below), or less frequently, new variables are suggested. Hand prints are taken, measurements are done, mathematical formulas are created. The first population, the one under study, is found to be strikingly different, slightly different or about the same as the control group. A paper appears in the Journal of the American Medical Association (or similar scientific journal) that chronicles the findings.

For instance, Mitral Valve Prolapse, a form of heart disease, is associated with an abnormally high number of Arches⁽¹⁵⁾; Breast Cancer, in recent studies, has been linked to a high number of Whorl patterns.⁽¹⁶⁾ Genetic oriented diseases have received the most scrutiny (Trisomy, Tay Sachs, etc.), but correlation have been found to Alzheimer’s⁽¹⁷⁾, tuberculosis⁽¹⁸⁾, diabetes⁽¹⁹⁾, cancer⁽²⁰⁾, heart disease⁽²¹) and many more medical conditions.

Psychological abnormalities have also been studied. Unusual ATD angles in combination with other statistical anomalies are common in various forms of retardation.⁽²²⁾ At least 34 research papers have been published on schizophrenia. Children with behavior weird enough to get them into a clinic have had their hand prints compared to control groups and were found to have significantly different patterns than normal children.⁽²³⁾

Another use of dermatoglyphics has been in anthropology. Population studies reveal distinct variation according to type and sub-type and have been used to determine the origin of various groups (Thor Heyerdahl notwithstanding, the original inhabitants of the Pacific Islands emigrated from Asia, not South America).⁽²⁴⁾ Until recently (when DNA testing took over), the most scientifically acceptable test to determine whether twins came from the same egg or not was the dermatoglyphic test.⁽²⁵⁾

Common Dermatoglyphic Variables

1. A-B Ridge Count

Number of fingerprint lines between the A triradius point and the B triradius point 39.3 is the mean Other ridge counts, for instance the B - C, C - D, A -D ridge count, and the combination of left and right hands are also used.

2. Pattern Intensity

Arch

Loop

Whorl

The total number of triradii on all ten fingers A triradius is a point where the pattern deviates into three directions Arches have no triradii, Loops have one, Whorls have two 12.1 is the mean

3. ATD Angle

Angle made by connecting the A, T, and D triradii points The lower T point is always used if there are more than one ~50 degrees is the mean The ATD changes as a person ages..

4. Palmar Crease Line Comparisons (see separate description)

5. Statistical Comparison of Pattern Types

How many subjects have Whorl formations on the thumb compared to the general population? Etc.

6. Main Line Index

Mathematical formula showing degree of transversality Track lines from the A triradii point (the A Line) to a location on outer edge of palm and add to number derived from D line terminus. A Line terminates at 3 D Line terminates at + 6 Main Line Index = 9

7. Statistical Comparisons of the Thenar, Hypothenar; Areas II, III, IV

Does Area II have a Loop or Whorl? Etc. The Hypothenar Eminence has Whorls in only 6 cases per thousand; Thenar Whorls are even less common. Certain formations occur with greater frequency in particular cases, for instance, the Composite Whorl (a subset of the Whorl) shopws up in 18% of schizophrenic hands.

8. Presence or Absence of the Sydney or Simian Lines


Sydney Line: Head line goes completely across palm	Normal arrangement: Heart, head, life lines	Simian Crease: Heart and head joined

More Recent History
Although Cummins stands alone as the giant of dermatoglyphic research, (almost all researchers have either built upon his methodology or followed his lines of inquiry) others since have added greatly to the field and the understanding of the evolution of fingerprints and line formations.

Perhaps the most thorough discussion of fingerprint formation comes from John J. Mulvihill, MD and David W. Smith MD in the October 1969 issue of the Journal of Pediatrics. Their paper, entitled The Genesis of Dermatoglyphics goes into exhaustive detail on the history of the study of fingerprint formation and provides the most up to date version of how fingerprints form. Little has changed in the last thirty years to alter their conclusions.

Mulvihill and Smith build on Cummins, Penrose (see below), Hale (see below) and others. Their findings can be summed up as follows:

6 -8 weeks after conception	Volar pads form (these are little ball like structures, eleven per hand, that make up the contour of the developing fetal hand)
10 -12 weeks	Volar pads begin to recede
13th week after conception	Skin ridges (fingerprints) begin to appear, taking the shape of the receding volar pad
21st week after conception	Fingerprint patterns are complete

To prove their case, that fingerprints conform to volar pad topography, Mulvihill and Smith cite prior research, going back to Bonnivie and Cummins, primate studies (which show that fingerprint patterns coincide to the location of walking pads), mathematical models, embryonic studies and observations of malformed hands. From this paper onward, the debate as to the origin of fingerprints and the types of pattern they form subsides.

Other key researchers of the post Cummins era include:
L.S. Penrose	Topographic studies (1933): "The features which are common to all these widely different systems [zebra stripes, sand dune ridging, cellophane subject to heat] are the loop and triradius. These are the inevitable consequences of the attempt to lay down a carpet of equidistant parallel lines, that is lines parallel in a small field, over a surface which is not flat." ⁽²⁷⁾
Sarah B. Holt	The Significance of Dematoglyphics in Medicine ⁽²⁸⁾, 1949
Alfred R. Hale	Credited with the definitive treatise on the development of fingerprints: Morphogenesis of Volar Skin in the Human Fetus, American Journal of Anatomy 91:147-173, 1952

The Study of Palmar Lines
Concurrent with the study of fingerprint patterns, the study of the line formations of the palm is also part of the field of dermatoglyphics. However, unlike the fingerprint patterns, the line formations keep altering throughout a person’s life and have shown themselves to be much more difficult to categorize. Because there has never been an agreed upon system for line classification, the study of lines has lagged behind the rest of dermatoglyphic research.

Nonetheless, numerous studies have found correlation between line patterns and different diseases ⁽²⁹⁾ and psychological conditions.⁽³⁰⁾

Fere in 1900⁽³¹⁾ is normally cited as the beginning point in the scientific study of line formations. His system merely noted the presence or absence of six different line formations which he then compared with different population samples, comparing the lines for bimanual differentiation, sexual differences, etc.

Poch, 1925⁽³²⁾ went a step further. He analyzed the intersections of lines as well as whether or not they were present. For example, 1 2,3/4 meant that lines 1,2,3,4 were present and that lines 2 and 3 intersected line 4. Poch used his system to correlate the relationship between embryonic disturbance and affect on line formation.

Wurth, 1937⁽³³⁾ was the first to note that lines form before the fetal hand can move. Cummins had previously noted the difference between lines that "represent firmer attachment of the skin to underlying structures," and those created later by "buckling of the skin," (34) but Wurth proved that the so called flexion creases could not be formed merely by flexing the hand.

Wendt, 1958⁽³⁵⁾ added a seventh line to the previous system (the line in palmistry that corresponds to the line of intuition), but there remained little consensus on a line classification system. The ones in use seemed both too simple and too difficult to apply. Several new systems appeared that attempted to correct this deficiency.

Lieber, 1969⁽³⁶⁾ proposed a much more detailed line classification system, but it proved cumbersome and no one else paid much attention to it.

The most widely quoted expert on lineformations is Milton Alter, PHD. Finding all other line classifications inadequate, he invented his own system that seemed at once more simple yet more comprehensive and scientific. Starting with four categories (the major lines all together, the distal transverse crease [the heart line], the proximal transverse crease [the head line] and the thenar crease [the life line]) he broke each into a few sub-categories and statistically compared males and females, left and right hands. (37) However, Alter's approach ran into difficulty. Line formations can be complex and different observers using Alter's system don't agree on the presence or absence of lines.

Chaube, 1971 took a different approach, a combination of Lieber and Alter. (38) He divided hands into twelve simple categories of line combination and collected statistics on different diseases. His approach succeeded in finding statistically relevant differences in cancer, schizophrenia, diabetes and tuberculosis. Chaube

Perhaps the most logical approach to date was suggested by Dar and Schmidt in 1976. (39) They write, "As the variability and possible clinical significance of palm crease abnormalities receive greater attention, an accurate and objective method for evaluating palm crease variants is required." As of 1998, no one seems to have taken them up on this challenge and their Latitude/Longitude Coordinates systems lies dormant.

Current Trends
By the early 1980’s, DNA testing had replaced the dermatoglyphic test as the standard in twin studies, issues of paternity, and chromosome disorder research. The Genome Project, a "big science" project that intends to fully map human DNA within the next several years, has gobbled up the funding that used to sustain dermatoglyphic research.

Terry Reed, who teaches dermatoglyphics at the University of Indiana Department of Medical Genetics concludes that "Until the major genetic disorders have been mapped and sequenced, it will likely be several years before a shift occurs towards the study of normal morphological traits, such as dermatoglyphics...When this happens, the results may prove to be quite fascinating."⁽⁴⁰⁾

At a conference on the state of dermatoglyphics (1991), various researches laid out their vision of the future. The good news is that several possible applications of dermatoglyphics seem quite promising. For instance:

Dermatoglyphics may be in position to become the primary means of assessing complex genetic traits⁽⁴¹⁾
Because fingerprints and line formations form during vital stages of fetal development, dermatoglyphic studies are in a unique position to evaluate the effect of toxins on the intrauterine environment (over 20% of all pregnancies never come to term).⁽⁴²⁾
Dermatoglyphics are still useful for the evaluation of children with suspected genetic disorders and diseases with long latency, slow progression, and late onset.⁽⁴³⁾
The new findings that rats have dermatoglyphic patterns (Bonnevie, with all her detailed research had missed this [rat dermatoglyphics are quite small] and until recently, no one had looked) opens up a whole new realm of experimental possibilities.⁽⁴⁴⁾

However, there are some obvious problems above the funding problem previously discussed. The most commonly discussed:

Small sample sizes
Incomplete diagnoses
Limited number of variables studies per research paper
Control group inadequacy
Statistical methodology errors
No agreed upon standard for line evaluation

It is interesting to note, that all these difficulties link together with one problem: although scanner technology and computer capabilities have advanced enormously in recent years, there exists no current method and no new mathematically advanced software to apply these new technologies to dermatoglyphic research.⁽⁴⁵⁾

The history of science is replete with examples of new technologies creating the possibility of new advances: Galileo uses the telescope, Loewenhook gets his hands on a microscope, etc. It is exciting to contemplate what could happen when (not if) the study of dermatoglyphics makes use of the advances already in use by other branches of science.